Posts Tagged ‘bank’
How to find Finance Related articles:
Finance means to provide funds for business or it is a branch of economics which deals with study of money and other assets. In a Business management, finance is a most important characteristic as business and finance are interrelated. One can achieve its goal through the use of suited financial instruments. Financial planning is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization.http://finance-info.synthasite.com
Personal finance
Personal finance may be required for education, insurance policies, and income tax management, investing, savings accounts. Personal loan is an effective source of personal finance. To avoid burden and life become enjoyable personal finance may be used as if getting it from a right source at minimum cost.
Business finance
Financial planning is essential in business finance to achieve its profit-making objectives. There are two main types of finance available to small business:
Debt Finance: lending money from banks, financial institutions etc. The borrower repays principal and interestEquity Finance: source of equity finance may be through a joint venture, private investors. It is a time consuming process.http://finance-info.synthasite.com
State finances
Finance of states or public finance is finance of country, state, county or city. It is concerned with sources of revenue, budgeting process, expenditure spent for public works projects.
How to maintain your finance solutions
To maintain your finance then take up best finance solutions this will give you the advice to manage your finance in better way. In financial crises, applying for a loan is the best way to finance your needs. Nowadays E-finance is another option for finance as borrower gets wider option in choosing the best lender. Financial planning is important for your finance solutions
Boris tomson is a professional content writer based in India. He has a special interest towards automotive field and can provide information related to any topic.
Today car becomes very essential for every human’s life. There are many people who have their own car but many people don’t have a car. They have not enough credit to buy a new branded car so they need car finance to do so. Car finance UK is so simple but it is not simple to get it in cheap interest rates. So that when you search for car finance UK you should try to get financed from that company who can offer you a cheap rate loan. It is necessary to minimize your burden on your finances and repaying ability.
In UK there are various lenders who offer cheap car finance for new and used car. You should try to get various loan quotes from various lenders and have to compare it for cheap rate finance before searching for car finance UK. There are a large numbers of lenders who offers cheap car finance in UK. It is suitable that you should not recognize a lender’s propose without comparing the car loan quotes. Before financing a car you need to check all the documents and the deals that are offered by your car financier. It would be your best decision to shop around for the best loan deal.
Many people can not have enough cash or saving to buy a car but they need car also so they wander for finance companies to get their dream car. Some of them get cheap rate finance but some of them pay higher for their finance. So they need to search online for various car finance UK companies. There are a lot of car finance websites available in which they provide various scheme and their other information related to car finance. So don’t wander hither and thither and go online search for best car finance UK.
If you have a bad credit history and you are unable to find car finance company that offer cheap rate finance, you should go online and search a website that can fulfill your need. For guaranteed cheap rate on car finance UK, prefer borrowing it aligned with your esteemed asset like home. So pertain to an online lender for cheap car finance in the UK. But ensure that you have compared well the online financier so that you have a proposal of how cheap rate loan can be getting in the UK.
The US Banks
Some of the largest and most innovative banks in the whole world are found in the US. Banks in the US are watching one another, the rest of the banks in the world always seeking what to do next.
US banks provide financial support to the most developed economy worldwide, and so their importance has grown within the global financial market. They range of products and services they offer, is wide and varied, be it personal business or corporate, institutional banking or any other type. With the use of the most advanced internet services on the market, banks in the US can easily be accessed anywhere and at anytime.
Among other, here is a list of services US banks provide:
• Personal Banking Services of Banks in USA
Personal banking services have been created to cater to daily requirements of consumers, such as checking products, plus internet banking free of charge, ATM/debit card facilities, online bill payment, monthly statement, opening deposits, etc. Loan products available in the US banks come in the form of home equity loans, car loans, or personal loans. Among the most common forms of saving money are the certificates of deposit or passbook savings.
• Mortgage Services of US Banks
US banks also offer a range of mortgage services, carefully designed to take care of the various mortgage needs of customers. Together with standard mortgage services, banks also provide mortgage calculators for clients to easily calculate the payment schedules they will have as well as monthly payments, mortgage amounts, and many more. Besides online mortgage services are also available, making the process of mortgage even easier and hassle-free.
• Business Banking Services of Banks in the USA
US banks also offer business banking support for corporate clients. Checking business accounts or seeing to all other financial needs businesses, such as commercial loans or construction loans, offered for business operation, equipment, or commercial real estate purchases are just a few operations US banks deal with.
• Other Products and Services of Banks in USA
Other banking products the US banks offer include agricultural loans or checking accounts. There loans help investors purchase machinery, livestock, and even real estate. Besides being cheap, checking accounts are also easy to operate. Among the facilities offered by online banking there is checking balance, funds transfer, or bill payment anytime and anywhere.
The largest banks in the US by deposits, are Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase Bank, Wachovia Bank, Citibank, Washington Mutual Bank, SunTrust Bank, US Bank , Regions Bank, and so on.
1.0 INDIAN BANKING SYSTEM
A banking company in India has been defined in the banking companiesact,1949.as one “which transacts the business of banking which means the accepting, for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits of money from the public, repayable on demand or otherwise and withdraw able by cheque, draft, order or otherwise.” Most of the activities a Bank performs are derived from the above definition. In addition, Banks are allowed to perform certain activities which are ancillary to this business of accepting deposits and lending. A bank’s relationship with the public, therefore, revolves around accepting deposits and lending money. Another activity which is assuming increasing importance is transfer of money – both domestic and foreign – from one place to another. This activity is generally known as “remittance business” in banking parlance. The so called forex (foreign exchange) business is largely a part of remittance albeit it involves buying and selling of foreign currencies.
Functioning of a Bank is among the more complicated of corporate operations. Since Banking involves dealing directly with money, governments in most countries regulate this sector rather stringently. In India, the regulation traditionally has been very strict and in the opinion of certain quarters, responsible for the present condition of banks, where NPAs are of a very high order. The process of financial reforms, which started in 1991, has cleared the cobwebs somewhat but a lot remains to be done. The multiplicity of policy and regulations that a Bank has to work with makes its operations even more complicated, sometimes bordering on illogical. This section, which is also intended for banking professional, attempts to give an overview of the functions in as simple manner as possible. Banking Regulation Act of India, 1949 defines Banking as “accepting, for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits of money from the public, repayable on demand or otherwise and withdraw able by cheques, draft, and order or otherwise.”
KINDS OF BANKS
Financial requirements in a modern economy are of a diverse nature, distinctive variety and large magnitude. Hence, different types of banks have been instituted to cater to the varying needs of the community. Banks in the organized sector can be classified in to the following
1. COMMERCIAL BANKS:-
Commercial banks are joint stock companies dealing in money and credit. In India, however there is a mixed banking system, prior to July 1969, all the commercial banks-73 scheduled and 26 non-scheduled banks, except the state bank of India and its subsidiaries-were under the control of private sector. On July 19, 1969, however, 14mejor commercial banks with deposits of over 50 Corers were nationalized. In April 1980, another six commercial banks of high standing were taken over by the government.
2. CO-OPERATIVE BANKS:-
Co-operative banks are a group of financial institutions organized under the provisions of the Co-operative societies Act of the states. The main objective of co-operative banks is to provide cheap credits to their members. They are based on the principle of self-reliance and mutual co-operation. Co-operative banking system in India has the shape of a pyramid a three tier structure, constituted by:
3. SPECIALIZED BANKS:-
There are specialized forms of banks catering to some special needs with this unique nature of activities. Foreign exchange banks, Industrial banks, Development banks, Land development banks, Exim bank are important.
4. CENTRAL BANK:-
A central bank is the apex financial institution in the banking and financial system
of a country. It is regarded as the highest monetary authority in the country. It acts as the leader of the money market. It supervises, control and regulates the activities of the commercial banks. It is a service oriented financial institution. India’s central bank is the reserve bank of India established in 1935.and it was nationalized in 1949.It is free from parliamentary control.
ROLE OF BANKS IN A DEVELOPING ECONOMY
Banks play a very important and dynamic role in the economic life of every modern state. A study of the economic history of western country shows that without the evolution of commercial banks in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industrial revolution would not have taken place in Europe. The economic importance of commercial banks to the developing countries may be viewed thus:
1. PROMOTING CAPITAL FORMATION:-
A developing economy needs a high rate of capital formation to accelerate the tempo of economic development, but the rate of capital formation depends upon the rate of saving. Unfortunately, in underdeveloped countries, saving is very low. Banks afford facilities for saving and, thus encourage the habits of thrift and industry in the community. They mobilize the ideal and dormant capital of the country and make it available for productive purposes.
2. ENCOURAGING INNOVATION:-
Innovation is another factor responsible for economic development. The entrepreneur in innovation is largely dependent on the manner in which bank credit is allocated and utilized in the process of economic growth. Bank credit enables entrepreneurs to innovate and invest, and thus uplift economic activity and progress.
3. MONETSATION:-
Banks are the manufactures of money and they allow many to play its role freely in the economy. Banks monetize debts and also assist the backward subsistence sector of the rural economy by extending their branches in to the rural areas. They must be replaced by the modern commercial bank’s branches.
4. INFLUENCE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Banks are in a position to influence economic activity in a country by their influence on the rate interest. They can influence the rate of interest in the money market through its supply of funds. Banks may follow a cheap money policy with low interest rates which will tend to stimulate economic activity.
5. FACILITATOR OF MONETARY POLICY
Thus monetary policy of a country should be conductive to economic development. But a well-developed banking system is on essential pre-condition to the effective implementation of monetary policy. Under-developed countries cannot afford to ignore this fact.
PRINCIPLES OF BANK LENDING POLICIES
The main business of banking company is to grant loans and advances to traders
as well as commercial and industrial institutes. The most important use of banks money is lending. Yet, there are risks in lending. So the banks follow certain principles to minimize the risk:
1. SAFETY
Normally the banker uses the money of depositors in granting loans and advances. So first of all initially the banker while granting loans should think first of the safety of depositor’s money. The purpose behind the safety is to see the financial position of the borrower whether he can pay the debt as well as interest easily.
2. LIQUIDITY
It is a legal duty of a banker to pay on demand the total deposited money to the depositor. So the banker has to keep certain percent cash of the total deposits on hand. Moreover the bank grants loan. It is also for the addition of short term or productive capital. Such type of lending is recovered on demand.
3. PROFITABILITY
Commercial banking is profit earning institutes. Nationalized banks are also not an exception. They should have planning of deposits in a profitability way pay more interest to the depositors and more salary to the employees. Moreover the banker can also incur business cost and can give more benefits to customer.
4. PURPOSE OF LOAN
Banks never lend or advance for any type of purpose. The banks grant loans and advances for the safety of its wealth, and certainty of recovery of loan and the bank lends only for productive purposes. For example, the bank gives such loan for the requirement for unproductive purposes.
5. PRINCIPLE OF DIVERSIFICATION OF RISKS
While lending loans or advances the banks normally keep such securities and assets as a supports so that lending may be safe and secured. Suppose, any particular state is hit by disasters but the bank shall get benefits from the lending to another states units. Thus, he effect on the entire business of banking is reduced.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following are the main objective of the studies.
1. To study the problem in financial crisis and money related query.
2. To evaluate banking is one of the most regulated businesses in the India.
3. To Analysis the role developing economy for the nation.
4. To study dynamic role in delivery and purchase of consumer durables.
Scope of the Study
All persons need money for personal and commercial purposes. Banks are the oldest lending institutions in Indian scenario. They are providing all facilities to all citizens for their own purposes by their terms. To survive in this modern market every bank implements so many new innovative ideas, strategies, and advanced technologies. For that they give each and every minute detail about their institution and projects to Public. They are providing ample facilities to satisfy their customers i.e. Net Banking, Mobile Banking, Door to Door facility, Instant facility, Investment facility, Demat facility, Credit Card facility, Loans and Advances, Account facility etc. And such banks get success to create their own image in public and corporate world. These banks always accept innovative notions in Indian banking scenario like Credit Cards, ATM machines, Risk Management etc. So, as a student business economics I take keen interest in Indian economy and for that banks are the main source of development.
So this must be the first choice for me to select this topic. At this stage every person must know about new innovation, technology of procedure new schemes and new ventures.
METHODOLGY
Theoretical study conducted on the basis of secondary data, collected from books, journal and annual reports.
2. BANK PROFILE:
Indian Bank
Name of the Branch : Karaikal. [0090]
Date of Opening : 1971
District/Port Open : Karaikal/Port Town.
Category/Size : Large.
Population : Urban.
Computerisation : CBS.
Name of the Branch Head : R.Muralitharan,(Senior Branch
Manager)
Staff Strength Officers : 06
Award Staff : 06
Sub Staff : 03
Productivity : Rs. 281.39 Lacs.
Branch Classification : Profit Centre.
Location of the Branch : No. 96-98 Bharathiyar Road,
Karaikal-609607
Competition in the area : Almost All Banks are functioning.
Potential Available : Situated in a Commercial Area with a number of shops around Scope for trade finance. Branch has to tap more trade finance.
Computerised : ATM/CBS.
Commercial Activity : Being a union territory, large commercial Industrial activities are on.
TARGETS vis-à-vis ACHIEVEMENTS
Rupees in Lacs
Particulars
31-03-2007
31-03-2008
30-06-2008
targets
target
actual
target
actual
target
actual
30-09-08
31-03-09
S.B
2900
2914
3343
2778
3400
3062
3557
4200
C.D
1610
1621
1814
924
2365
1700
1915
2200
T.D
4800
5281
5654
5890
6064
6099
5841
6400
TOTAL
9310
9816
10811
9592
11329
10361
11329
12900
ADVANCES
4389
3674
3883
3733
5487
5768
5487
6430
PROFIT
474
520
175
120
156
147
289
411
NPA LEVEL
320
368
379
601
457
604
478
581
SLIPPAGE
118
251
234
268
276
337
CASH REC.
40
62
38.33
13.01
40
18.98
121
200
UPGRADE
20
60
13.33
3.5O
16.65
5.52
26
47
IOB JEEVAN
224
432
385
543
600
HEALTH+
47
80
110
136
200**
** Number of Accounts. * Cumulative Figures.
Source: Computed Balance sheet of Indian Bank
Inspection Report Rating:
Inspection Report dated
Business Growth
Profitability
Credit Mgt.
NPA Mgt.
House keeping
Branch Image
Overall Rating
25.08.2003
B
B
C
C
B
B
B
12.02.2005
A
A
C
B
B
B
B
29.08.2006
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
Source: computed balance sheet.
STRATEGIC ISSUES IN BANKING SERVICES
Strategic Planning is the process of analyzing the organizational external and internal environments; developing the appropriate mission, vision, and overall goals; identifying the general strategies to be pursued; and allocated resources.
• Mission is an organization’s current purpose or reason for existing.
• Vision is an organization’s fundamental aspirations and purpose that usually appeals to its member’s hearts and minds.
• Goals are what an organization is committed to achieving.
• Strategies are the major courses of action that an organization takes to achieves goals.
• Resource Allocation is the earmarking of money, through budgets, for various purposes.
• Downsizing Strategy signals an organization’s intent to rely on fewer resources primarily human-to accomplish its goals.
Tactical Planning is the process of making detailed decisions about what to do, which will do it, and how to do it-with a normal time and horizon of one year or less. The process generally includes:
• Choosing specific goals and the means of implementing the organization’s strategic plan,
• Deciding on courses of action for improving current operations, and
• Developing budgets for each department, division and project.
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
While Total Quality Management has proven to be an effective process for improving organizational functioning, its value can only be assured through a comprehensive and well thought out implementation process. TQM is, in fact, a large scale systems change, and guiding principles and considerations regarding this scale of change will be presented. Without attention to contextual factors, well intended changes may not be adequately designed. As another aspect of context, the expectations and perceptions of employees will be assessed, so that the implementation plan can address them. Specifically, sources of resistance to change and ways of dealing with them will be discussed. This is important to allow a change agent to anticipate resistances and design for them, so that the process does not bog down or stall. Next, a model of implementation will be presented, including a discussion of key principles. Visionary leadership will be offered as an overriding perspective for someone instituting TQM. In recent years the literature on change management and leadership has grown steadily, and applications based on research findings will be more likely to succeed. Use of tested principles will also enable the change agent to avoid reinventing the proverbial wheel. Implementation principles will be followed by a review of steps in managing the transition to the new system and ways of helping institutionalize the process as part of the organization’s culture. Finally, some miscellaneous do’s and don’ts will be offered.
Planned change processes often work, if conceptualized and implemented properly; but, unfortunately, every organization is different, and the processes are often adopted “off the shelf” “the ‘appliance model of organizational change’: buy a complete program, like a ‘quality circle package,’ from a dealer, plug it in, and hope that it runs by itself” (Kanter, 1983, 249). Alternatively, especially in the underfunded public and not for profit sectors, partial applications are tried, and in spite of management and employee commitment do not bear fruit. This chapter will focus on ways of preventing some of these disappointments. In summary, the purpose here is to review principles of effective planned change implementation and suggest specific TQM applications. Several assumptions are proposed:
1. TQM is a viable and effective planned change method, when properly installed
2. Not all organizations are appropriate or ready for TQM
3. Preconditions (appropriateness, readiness) for successful TQM can sometimes be created
4. Leadership commitment to a large scale, long term, and cultural change is necessary.
While problems in adapting TQM in government and social service organizations have been identified, TQM can be useful in such organizations if properly modified.
For survival, banks have to make efforts to improve their quality and competitiveness by planning and taking innovative in fall areas:
· Increase emphasis on customer focused activities
· Intro a “total quality” program
· Developing differential value added services
· Educating employees through involvement programs
· Increase quality through management and system
· Increase effectiveness of product development
· Developing product with lower uses costs
TQM principles
· Customer satisfaction
· Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle
· Management by ‘fact’ – 5Ws (what, why, who, when, and where) + 1H(how) approach
· Respect for people
TQM elements
· Total employee involvement (TEI)
· Total waste elimination (TWE)
· Total quality control (TQC)
TQM focus areas
· Customer satisfaction
· Product quality
· Plant reliability
· Waste elimination
Benefits achieved through TQM
· Increased focus on the customer
· Mindset of ‘continuous improvement’
· Better product quality
· Better systems and procedures
· Better cross-functional teamwork
· Increased plant reliability
· Waste elimination in offices and factories.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
According to Peter Drucker and Daniel Bell, the management Gurus knowledge is the only meaningful economic resource. Knowledge management can be defined as a systematic and integrative process of coordinating organization-wide activities of acquiring, creating, storing, sharing, diffusing, developing and deploying knowledge by individual and groups in the pursuit of major organizational goals. It also involves the creation of an interacting learning environment where organization members transfer and share what they know; and apply knowledge to solve problems, innovate and create new knowledge.
Knowledge management is as much about people and culture as it is about technology. Knowledge management thrives only when the human communication network operates freely across the shortest path between the knowledge providers and knowledge seekers. There must be a culture that promotes and rewards the pooling together of knowledge resources. Thus organizations must build a culture that motivates people to create, share and use knowledge.
After the preoccupation with system and procedures to collect data ad translate it into information, its time for firms to focus on the next plane- knowledge. Knowledge management is not a buzzword. Every knowledge management solution, if currently implemented, has definite measurable business benefits.
Future business success increasingly depends on the retention and the creative use of the knowledge ideas and experiences of an organization and its employees. And in knowledge economy corporations need for workers will be more than the workers need for employer.
INNOVATION IN BANK
Innovation drives organizations to grow, prosper and transform in sync with the changes in the environment, both internal and external. Banking is no exception to this. In fact, this sector has witnessed radical transformation of late, based on many innovations in products, processes, services, systems, business models, technology, governance and regulation. A liberalized and globalize financial infrastructure has provided an additional impetus to this gigantic effort.
The pervasive influence of information technology has revolutionaries banking. Transaction costs have crumbled and handling of astronomical number of transactions in no time has become a reality. Internationally, the number brick and mortar structure has been rapidly yielding ground to click and order electronic banking with a plethora of new products. Banking has become boundary less and virtual with a 24 * 7 model. Banks who strongly rely on the merits of relationship banking’ as a time tested way of targeting and serving clients, have readily embraced Customer Relationship Management (CRM), with sharp focus on customer centricity, facilitated by the availability of superior technology. CRM has, therefore, become the new mantra in customer service management, which is both relationship based and information intensive.
Risk management is no longer a mere regulatory issue.basel-2 has accorded a primacy of place to this fascinating exercise by repositioning it as the core of banking. We now see the evolution of many novel deferral products like credit derivatives, especially the Credit Risk Transfer (CRT) mechanism, as a consequence. CRT, characterized by significant product innovation, is a very useful credit risk management tool that enhances liquidity and market efficiency. Securitization is yet another example in this regard, whose strategic use has been rapidly rising globally. So is outsourcing.
TECHNOLOGY IN BANKING
Nobel Laureate Robert Solow had once remarked that computers are seen everywhere excepting in productivity statistics. More recent developments have shown how far this state of affairs has changed. Innovation in technology and worldwide revolution in information and communication technology (ICT) have emerged as dynamic sources of productivity growth. The relationship between IT and banking is fundamentally symbiotic. In the banking sector, IT can reduce costs, increase volumes, and facilitate customized products; similarly, IT requires banking and financial services
to facilitate its growth. As far as the banking system is concerned, the payment system is perhaps the most important mechanism through which such interactive dynamics gets manifested. Recognizing the importance of payments and settlement systems in the economy, we have embarked on technology based solutions for the improvement of the payment and settlement system infrastructure, coupled with the introduction of new payment products such as the computerized settlement of clearing transactions, use of Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) technology for cheque clearing which currently accounts for 65 per cent of the value of cheques processed in the country, the computerization of Government Accounts and Currency Chest transactions, operationalisation of Delivery versus Payment (DvP) for Government securities transactions. Two-way inter-city cheque collection and imaging have been operationalised at the four metros. The coverage of Electronic Clearing Service (Debit and Credit) has been significantly expanded to encourage non-paper based funds movement and develop the provision of a centralized facility for effecting payments. The scheme for Electronic Funds Transfer operated by the Reserve Bank has been significantly augmented and is now available across thirteen major cities. The scheme, which was originally intended for small value transactions, is processing high value (upto Rs.2 crore) from October 1, 2001. The Centralized Funds Management System (CFMS), which would enable banks to obtain consolidated account-wise and centre-wise positions of their balances with all 17 offices of the Deposits Accounts Departments of the Reserve Bank, has begun to be implemented in a phased manner from November 2001.
A holistic approach has been adopted towards designing and development of a modern, robust, efficient, secure and integrated payment and settlement system taking into account certain aspects relating to potential risks, legal framework and the impact on the operational framework of monetary policy. The approach to the modernization of the
payment and settlement system in India has been three-pronged: (a) consolidation, (b) development, and (c) integration. The consolidation of the existing payment systems revolves around strengthening Computerized Cheque clearing, expanding the reach of Electronic Clearing Services and Electronic Funds Transfer by providing for systems with the latest levels of technology. The critical elements in the developmental strategy are the opening of new clearing houses, interconnection of clearing houses through the INFINET; optimizing the deployment of resources by banks through Real Time Gross Settlement System, Centralized Funds Management System (CFMS); Negotiated Dealing System (NDS) and the Structured Financial Messaging Solution (SFMS). While integration of the various payment products with the systems of individual banks is the thrust area, it requires a high degree of standardization within a bank and seamless interfaces across banks.
The setting up of the apex-level National Payments Council in May 1999 and the operationalisation of the INFINET by the Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT), Hyderabad have been some important developments in the direction of providing a communication network for the exclusive use of banks and financial institutions. Membership in the INFINET has been opened up to all banks in addition to those in the public sector. At the base of all inter-bank message transfers using the INFINET is the Structured Financial Messaging System (SFMS). It would serve as a secure communication carrier with templates for intra- and inter-bank messages in fixed message formats that will facilitate ‘straight through processing’. All inter-bank transactions would be stored and switched at the central hub at Hyderabad while intra bank messages will be switched and stored by the bank gateway. Security features of the SFMS would match international standards.
In order to maximize the benefits of such efforts, banks have to take pro-active measures to:
· further strengthen their infrastructure in respect of standardization, high levels
· of security and communication and networking;
· achieve inter-branch connectivity early;
· popularize the usage of the scheme of electronic funds transfer (EFT); and
· Institute arrangements for an RTGS environment online with a view to integrating into a secure and consolidated payment system.
Information technology has immense untapped potential in banking. Strengthening of information technology in banks could improve the effectiveness of asset-liability management in banks. Building up of a related data-base on a real time basis would enhance the forecasting of liquidity greatly even at the branch level. This could contribute to enhancing the risk management capabilities of banks.
REGULATIONS AND COMPLIANCE
Progressive strengthening, deepening and refinement of the regulatory and supervisory system for the financial sector have been important elements of financial sector reforms. In the long run, it is the supervision and regulation function that is critical in safeguarding financial stability. There is also some evidence that proactive and effective supervision contributes to the efficiency of financial intermediation. Financial sector supervision is expected to become increasingly risk-based and concerned with validating systems rather than setting them. This will entail procedures for sound internal evaluation of risk for banks. As mentioned earlier, bank managements will have to develop internal capital assessment processes in accordance with their risk profile and control environment. These internal processes would then be subjected to review and supervisory intervention if necessary. The emphasis will be on evaluating the quality of risk management and the adequacy of risk containment. In such an environment, credibility assigned by markets to risk disclosures will hold only if they are validated by supervisors. Thus effective and appropriate supervision is critical for the effectiveness of capital requirements and market discipline.
In certain areas, as for instance, in the urban cooperative banking segment, the regulatory requirements leave considerable scope for regulatory arbitrage and even circumvention. The problem is rendered more complex by the existence of regulatory overlap between the Central Government, the State Governments and the Reserve Bank. Regulatory overlap has impeded the speed of regulatory response to emerging problems. The need for removing multiple regulatory jurisdictions over the cooperative banking sector has been reiterated on several occasions. In this regard, the Reserve Bank has proposed the setting up of an apex supervisory body for urban cooperative banks under the control of a high-level supervisory board consisting of representatives of the Central governments, the State governments, the Reserve Bank and experts. The apex body is expected to ensure compliance with prudential requirements and also supervise on-site inspections and off-site surveillance.
Recent developments in certain segments of the financial sector have also brought to the fore issues relating to corporate governance in banks. As part of on-going reforms, boards have been given greater autonomy to prescribe internal control guidelines, risk management and procedures for market discipline and accountability. It is extremely important that greater vigilance over adherence to these norms goes hand-in-hand with greater autonomy. Recent evidence of transgression of prudential guidelines by a few banks has raised the issue of the audit and supervisory functions of boards. As we move towards a more deregulated financial regime, these functions have to be transferred from either the Government or the Reserve Bank to bank boards. This imposes a greater responsibility and accountability on the bank management. It is in this context that a consultative group of directors of select banks and other experts has been set up to recommend measures to strengthen the internal supervisory role of boards. The objective is to obtain a feedback on how boards function vis-à-vis compliance with prudential norms, transparency and disclosure, functioning of the audit committee, etc., and to devise effective mechanisms for ensuring management discipline.
Several other initiatives in improving the supervisory function have been undertaken, including a prudential supervisory reporting system for financial institutions, improvements in procedures for financial inspection, sensitizing the general public for better regulation of the activities of NBFCs and enactment of appropriate legislation to protect depositor interests in some States. Major legal reforms have been initiated in areas
such as security laws, the Negotiable Instruments Act, bank frauds and the regulatory framework of banking. The Reserve Bank has also accepted the principle of transfer of ownership to the Government in respect of some financial institutions in view of the conflict of interest that may arise in the conduct of its supervisory function. It is expected that these initiatives will pave the way for an efficient, and risk-based supervisory environment in India.
The largest set of consolidated regulations that mandate integrity of data in India are the IT Act and SEBI’s clause 49 for listed companies. These regulations do not currently enforce the kind of security standards that are common in Europe and the US. In a global economy, however, no company is an island and India Inc is adopting US and European compliance procedures and certifications such as Sarbanes Oxley, Safe Harbour, BS, and ISO.
Compliance, regulatory or otherwise, does not directly concern the IT department. In manufacturing for instance, compliance controls don’t really involve system security, and a large part of the quality control required by authorities cannot be imposed or enforced using IT. Companies that deal with sensitive information, financial services and BPOs, banks, MNC subsidiaries or those with plans to expand beyond Indian shores are all affected. These will continue to make strides towards compliance. For the mediumscale segment (Rs 100-300 crore turnover), security and audits are not a priority. This segment is comfortable with public mail servers, and exchanging information over not very secure connections.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE – CODE OF CONDUCT
1. Need and objective of the Code
Clause 49 of the Listing agreement entered into with the Stock Exchanges, requires, as part of Corporate Governance the listed entities to lay down a Code of Conduct for Directors on the Board of an entity and its Senior Management. The term “Senior Management” shall mean personnel of the company who are members of its core management team excluding the Board of Directors. This would also include all members of management, one level below the Executive Directors including all functional heads.
2. Bank’s Belief System
This Code of Conduct attempts to set forth the guiding principles on which the Bank shall operate and conduct its daily business with its multitudinous stakeholders, government and regulatory agencies, media and anyone else with whom it is connected. It recognizes that the Bank is a trustee and custodian of public money and in order to fulfill fiduciary obligations and responsibilities, it has to maintain and continue to enjoy the trust and confidence of public at large.
The Bank acknowledges the need to uphold the integrity of every transaction it enters into and believes that honesty and integrity in its internal conduct would be judged by its external behavior. The bank shall be committed in all its actions to the interest of the countries in which it operates. The Bank is conscious of the reputation it carries amongst its customers and public at large and shall endeavor to do all it can to sustain and improve upon the same in its discharge of obligations. The Bank shall continue to initiate policies, which are customer centric and which promote financial prudence.
A. General Standards of conduct
The Bank expects all Directors and members of the Core Management to exercise good judgment, to ensure the interests, safety and welfare of customers, employees and other stakeholders and to maintain a cooperative, efficient, positive, harmonious and productive work environment and business organization. The Directors and members of the Core Management while discharging duties of their office must act honestly and with due diligence. They are expected to act with that amount of utmost care and prudence, which an ordinary person is expected to take in his/ her own business. These standards need to be applied while working in the premises of the Bank, at offsite locations where business is being conducted whether in India or abroad, at Bank-sponsored business and social events, or at any other place where they act as representatives of the Bank.
B. Conflict of Interest
A “conflict of interest” occurs when personal interest of any member of the Board of Directors and of the Core management interferes or appears to interfere in any way with the interests of the Bank. Every member of the Board of Directors and Core Management has a responsibility to the Bank, its stakeholders and to each other. Although this duty does not prevent them from engaging in personal transactions and investments, it does demand that they avoid situations where a conflict of interest might occur or appear to occur. They are expected to perform their duties in a way that they do not conflict with the Bank’s interest such as :
· Employment /Outside Employment – The members of the Core Management are expected to devote their total attention to the business interests of the Bank. They are prohibited from engaging in any activity that interferes with their performance or responsibilities to the Bank or otherwise is in conflict with or prejudicial to the Bank.
· Business Interests – If any member of the Board of Directors and Core Management considers investment in securities issued by the Bank’s customer, supplier or competitor, they should ensure that these investments do not compromise their responsibilities to the Bank. Many factors including the size and nature of the investment; their ability to influence the Bank’s decisions, their access to confidential information of the Bank, or of the other entity, and the nature of the relationship between the Bank and the customer, supplier or competitor should be considered in determining whether a conflict exists. Additionally, they should disclose to the Bank any interest that they have which may conflict with the business of the Bank.
C. Applicable Laws
The Directors of the Bank and Core Management must comply with applicable laws,regulations, rules and regulatory orders. They should report any inadvertent non -compliance, if detected subsequently, to the concerned authorities.
D. Disclosure Standards
The Bank shall make full, fair, accurate, timely and meaningful disclosures in the periodic reports required to be filed with Government and Regulatory agencies. The members of Core Management of the bank shall initiate all actions deemed necessary for proper dissemination of relevant information to the Board of Directors, Auditors and other Statutory Agencies, as may be required by applicable laws, rules and regulations.
E. Use of Bank’s Assets and Resources
Each member of the Board of Directors and the Core Management has a duty to the Bank to advance its legitimate interests while dealing with the Bank’s assets and resources. Members of the Board of Directors and Core Management are prohibited from:
· Using Corporate property, information or position for personal gain,
· Soliciting, demanding, accepting or agreeing to accept anything of value from any person while dealing with the Bank’s assets and resources,
· Acting on behalf of the Bank in any transaction in which they or any of their relative(s) have a significant direct or indirect interest.
F. Confidentiality and Fair Dealings
(i) Bank’s confidential Information
· The Bank’s confidential information is a valuable asset. It includes all
trade related information, trade secrets, confidential and privileged information, customer information, employee related information, strategies, administration, research in connection with the Bank and commercial, legal, scientific, technical data that are either provided to or made available each member of the Board of Directors and the core Management by the Bank either in paper form or electronic media to facilitate their work or that they are able to know or obtain access by virtue of their position with the Bank. All confidential information must be used for Bank’s business purposes only.
· This information includes the safeguarding, securing and proper disposal of confidential information in accordance with the Bank’s policy on maintaining and managing records. The obligation extends to confidential of third parties, which the Bank has rightfully received under non-disclosure agreements.
· To further the Bank’s business, confidential information may have to be disclosed to potential business partners. Such disclosures should be made after considering its potential benefits and risks. Care should be taken to divulge the most sensitive information, only after the said potential business partner has signed a confidentiality agreement with the Bank.
· Any publication or publicly made statement that might be perceived or construed as attributable to the Bank, made outside the scope of any appropriate authority in the Bank, should include a disclaimer that the publication or statement represents the views of the specific author and not the Bank.
(ii) Other Confidential Information
The bank has many kinds of business relationships with many companies and individuals. Sometimes, they will volunteer confidential information about their products or business plans to induce the Bank to enter into a business relationship. At other times, the Bank may request that a third party provide confidential information to permit the Bank to evaluate a potential business relationship with the party. Therefore, special care must be taken by the Board of Directors and members of the Core Management to handle the confidential information of others responsibly. Such confidential information should be handled in accordance with the agreements with such third parties.
· The Bank requires that every Director and the member of Core Management, General Managers should be fully compliant with the laws, statutes, rules and regulations that have the objective of preventing unlawful gains of any nature whatsoever.
· Directors and members of Core Management shall not accept any offer, payment, promise to pay or authorization to pay any money, gift or anything of value from customers, suppliers, shareholders/ stakeholders etc that is perceived as intended, directly or indirectly, to influence any business decision, any act or failure to act, any commission of fraud or opportunity for the commission of any fraud.
4. Good Corporate Governance Practices
Each member of the Board of Directors and Core Management of the Bank should adhere to the following so as to ensure compliance with good Corporate Governance practices.
(a) Dos
§ Attend Board meetings regularly and participate in the deliberations and discussions effectively.
§ Study the Board papers thoroughly and enquire about follow-up reports on definite time schedule.
§ Involve actively in the matter of formulation of general policies.
· Be familiar with the broad objectives of the Bank and policies laid down by the Government and the various laws and legislations.
· Ensure confidentiality of the Bank’s agenda papers, notes and minutes.
(b) Don’ts
· Do not interfere in the day to day functioning of the Bank.
· Do not reveal any information relating to any constituent of the Bank to anyone.
· Do not display the logo / distinctive design of the Bank on their personal visiting cards / letter heads.
· Do not sponsor any proposal relating to loans, investments, buildings or sites for Bank’s premises, enlistment or empanelment of contractors, architects, auditors, doctors, lawyers and other professionals etc.
· Do not do anything, which will interfere with and/ or be subversive of maintenance of discipline, good conduct and integrity of the staff.
5. Waivers
· Any waiver of any provision of this Code of Conduct for a
member of the Bank’s Board of Directors or a member of the Core Management must be approved in writing by the Board of Directors of the Bank.
The matters covered in this Code of Conduct are of the utmost importance to the bank, its stakeholders and its business partners, and are essential to the Bank’s ability to conduct its business in accordance with its value system.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organizations, particularly new businesses generally in response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult undertaking, as a majority of new businesses fail. Entrepreneurial activities are substantially different depending on the type of organization that is being started. Entrepreneurship may involve creating many job opportunities.
Many “high-profile” entrepreneurial ventures seek venture capital or angel funding in order to raise capital to build the business. Many kinds of organizations now exist to support would-be entrepreneurs, including specialized government agencies, business incubators, science parks, and some NGOs. Schumpeter (1950), an entrepreneur is a person who is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation. Entrepreneurship forces “creative destruction” across markets and industries, simultaneously creating new products and business models and eliminating others. In this way, creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth. Despite Schumpeter’s early 20th-century contributions, the traditional microeconomic theory of economics has had little room for entrepreneurs in their theories.
Characteristics of entrepreneurship:-
§ The entrepreneur, who has a vision and the enthusiasm for this vision, is the driving force of an entrepreneurship
§ The vision is usually supported by a set of ideas that have not been aware by the majority of the market/industry
§ The overall blueprint to realize the vision is clear, however details may be incomplete, flexible, and evolving
§ The entrepreneur promotes the vision with an influential passion
§ With a persistent and deterministic mindset, the entrepreneur devises a set of entrepreneurial strategies to thrive for the vision
PERFORMANCE AND BENCHMARKING
• PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT:-
Performance management is a systematic approach to improving worker productivity through a year-round, ongoing process of communicating and managing performance expectations. With Performance-based Management, performance improvement becomes the joint responsibility of employees and their managers. Generally there are two things which determine how successful a performance appraisal system is in place in an organization.
1) The contents/design of the performance appraisal form and
2) The manner in which Performance Appraisal is conducted.
While organizations lay great emphasis on the contents/design part, spending much of time, money and energy on designing most suitable, objective, comprehensive formats, it serves no purpose if the appraising process is not conducted properly.
Performance-based Management measures, evaluates and improves performance on the job. You can expect employee productivity to increase because performance assessments and performance feedback will always be job-related, even if the duties of a particular job expand or change. Furthermore, because this type of performance management focuses on productivity and not personality and since it involves ongoing, open, two-way communication between manager and employee, it greatly reduces many of the stereotypes, problems and anxieties associated with traditional labor-intensive
A benchmark is a point of reference for a measurement. The term presumably originates from the practice of making dimensional height measurements of an object on a workbench using a graduated scale or similar tool, and using the surface of the workbench as the origin for the measurements.
Benchmarks are designed to mimic a particular type of workload on a component or system. “Synthetic” benchmarks do this by specially-created programs that impose the workload on the component. “Application” benchmarks, instead, run actual real-world programs on the system. Whilst application benchmarks usually give a much better measure of real-world performance on a given system, synthetic benchmarks still have their use for testing out individual components, like a hard disk or networking device. Computer manufacturers have a long history of trying to set up their systems to give unrealistically high performance on benchmark tests that is not replicated in real usage. For instance, during the 1980s some compilers could detect a specific mathematical operation used in a well-known floating-point benchmark and replace the operation with a mathematically-equivalent operation that was much faster. However, such a transformation was rarely useful outside the benchmark. Manufacturers commonly report only those benchmarks (or aspects of benchmarks) that show their products in the best light. They also have been known to mis-represent the significance of benchmarks, again to show their products in the best possible light. Taken together, these practices are called bench-marketing.
Users are recommended to take benchmarks, particularly those provided by manufacturers themselves, with ample quantities of salt. If performance is really critical, the only benchmark that matters is the actual workload that the system is to be used for. If that is not possible, benchmarks that resemble real workloads as closely as possible should be used, and even then used with skepticism. It is quite possible for system A to outperform system B when running program “furble” on workload X (the workload in the benchmark), and the order to be reversed with the same program on your own workload.
• BENCHMARKING:-
Benchmarking (Comparing) is a selective method of finding out how and why some companies can perform tasks much better than other companies. There can be as much as a tenfold difference in the quality, speed and cost-performance of an average company versus a world-class company.
It involves the following seven steps
1) Determine functions to benchmark.
2) Identify the key performance variables to measure.
3) Identify the best-in-class companies.
4) Measure performance of best-in-class companies
5) Measures the company’s performance.
6) Specify programs and actions to close the gap
7) Implement and monitor results
A company can identify “best practices” companies by asking employees, customers, suppliers and distributors what they rate as doing the best. Major Consulting Firms can also be contacted for this purpose. To keep costs under control, a company should focus primarily on benchmarking those critical tasks that deeply affect customer satisfaction and Cost Management and where substantially better performance is known to exist.
Benchmarking is a process used in management and particularly strategic management, in which businesses use industry leaders as a model in developing their business practices. This involves determining where you need to improve, finding an organization that is exceptional in this area, then studying the company and applying it’s best practices in your firm. Benchmarking systematically studies the absolute best firms, then uses their best practices as
For centuries, banks have influenced the economies and politics of the world. Traditionally, banks originated as places where businesses could secure loans to purchase inventory, and thereafter collect the funds with interest once the goods were sold. The origin of the word bank is derived from the Italian word, “banco” or desk. During the Renaissance, Florentine bankers conducted their transactions above desks covered in a green tablecloth.
It has been speculated the earliest banks were actually religious temples in the ancient world, where deposits of grain and other goods were made. Considered sacred places, these temples were well protected from potential thieves. There are also historic records which point to loan activity extended by priests to merchants in ancient Babylon. Hammurabi’s Code, the oldest, best preserved law code in existence was created circa 1760 B.C. and includes laws which were used to govern bank operations.
Not surprisingly, the Ancient Greeks further developed the concept of banking. Transactions such as loans, deposits, currency exchanges, and more were conducted in temples as well as private and civic components. Evidence also points to the concept of credit. In return for payment from a client, a creditor in one Greek port would write a note of credit that the client could later cash in another port city. This convenient method saved the client from the danger of carrying coinage with him on his journey. Historic records indicate that a Pythius of the early 5th century B.C. operated as a merchant banker throughout Asia Minor.
The rise of the Roman Empire brought about greater administrative and financial regulations for banking. The charging of interest on loans was further developed by scrupulous financiers, making the system highly competitive. However, the bank system eventually broke down in large part to the Roman preference for cash transactions. Following the fall of Rome, Western Europe essentially abandoned banking. It did not experience a revival until the need for financing the Crusades stimulated its re-emergence.
Interestingly, the world’s oldest bank has been in existence since its founding in 1427. The Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena SPA (MPS) was created in the city state of Siena, Italy. The bank today is comprised of nearly 1,800 branches, 28,000 employees and more than four million customers in Italy and abroad.
Fast forward to Western banking history, which is generally traced to the coffee houses in London. Founded in 1565, the Royal Exchange acted as a center of commerce for the city. A hierarchy of banking started at the top with bankers who conducted business with heads of state, followed by city exchanges, and at the bottom, pawn shops. In 1609, the Amsterdamsche Wisselbank (Amsterdam Exchange Bank) was established, making Amsterdam the financial center of the Western world.
Concepts of capitalism extolled by Adam Smith, considered the father of modern economics, and the advent of the Industrial Revolution gave way to a massive growth in the banking industry in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the United States, the first banks required special permission from the state government to operate. The state’s supervision proved inadequate as individual banks began issuing their own notes. By 1860, more than 10,000 various bank notes were circulating throughout the country. Counterfeiting was rampant and hundreds of banks failed. Government reforms created a new system of banking which included an involved method for producing authentic bank notes.
With the onset of the worldwide depression in the early 1930s, banks took a hard hit, which led to Congress’ creation of federal deposit insurance. President Franklin D. Roosevelt oversaw the implementation of laws aimed at limiting risks to banks and restoring Americans’ confidence in the banking system.
Since then, banking has undergone a revolution with technology transforming the way Americans bank. First telephone banking, and then ATMs, debit and credit cards, have lead the way to new innovations. Today, online banking and electronic money are evolving. Banks strive to serve the greater public in a competitive market that ensures a safe and sound banking system. From religious temples and Italian desks to coffee houses and the Industrial Revolution, banking has forever changed the way we live.
Corporate Financing
Corporate financing is a type of financing which is acquired by corporations. Typically corporate financing is obtained to finance projects designed to grow a corporation or by new companies which need capital in order to build the company up. Many corporations attempting to acquire corporate financing will obtain the services of a business loan broker in order to expedite the entire financing process and to obtain a better interest rate.
Corporate financing is considered one of the most difficult forms of financing to obtain. In many cases lending money to businesses can be one of the most lucrative types of loans a lender can make it is also one of the riskiest. This is related to the fact that only around 1 in 10 businesses succeed. This makes it a fairly high risk loan for business lenders. Typically any business that is looking to get corporate financing will need to have a fairly strong credit rating which proves to the lenders that they have a history of paying their loans off on time and in full. It is also considered beneficial for a company looking for corporate financing to have a revenue history which shows a consistent profit margin or a profit margin which has been steadily increasing over several years.
Corporate financing is considered one of the most difficult forms of financing to obtain. In many cases lending money to businesses can be one of the most lucrative types of loans a lender can make it is also one of the riskiest. This is related to the fact that only around 1 in 10 businesses succeed. This makes it a fairly high risk loan for business lenders. Typically any business that is looking to get corporate financing will need to have a fairly strong credit rating which proves to the lenders that they have a history of paying their loans off on time and in full. It is also considered beneficial for a company looking for corporate financing to have a revenue history which shows a consistent profit margin or a profit margin which has been steadily increasing over several years.
Corporate financing is considered one of the most difficult forms of financing to obtain. In many cases lending money to businesses can be one of the most lucrative types of loans a lender can make it is also one of the riskiest. This is related to the fact that only around 1 in 10 businesses succeed. This makes it a fairly high risk loan for business lenders. Typically any business that is looking to get corporate financing will need to have a fairly strong credit rating which proves to the lenders that they have a history of paying their loans off on time and in full. It is also considered beneficial for a company looking for corporate financing to have a revenue history which shows a consistent profit margin or a profit margin which has been steadily increasing over several years.
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If you belong to the generation that feeds on technology then Internet banking shouldn’t at all be an issue for you. The Internet for you is the place to get things done quickly without actually going out. Banking is one of these things. For those who are a bit older, the concept of not interfacing with a human inside the bank will be a bitter pill to swallow. They still are yet to be convinced so it is necessary to weigh the advantages and disadvantages for Internet banking.
Apprehensive people know about the many wonders of the Internet and they have heard so much about Internet banking but they are still paying their bills by mail and depositing checks at their branch.
Many people are already using the Internet to shop for items, or even financial packages for mortgages and loans but when it’s time to finalize, they still opt to go to the office of the company they chose and seal things with an agent.
Before comparing the advantages and disadvantages for Internet banking, let us first define the concept so others who do not know yet can have an idea.
The What and Who in online banking
When the Internet started to become very popular and computers began to become more and more advanced, many businesses started to shift their attention to the trend and established their online presence. This same trend also started to reshape the banking industry.
In the past, banks used computers to automate their daily transactions. These days, there hardly is any paper work at all since everything is done online via the bank’s network system. The only thing that serves as a transaction record is the receipt a shopper gets when she’s at the POS of her favorite boutique.
For banks, their Internet presence is a value-added service for existing and new customers.
Online banking goes by so many other names like PC banking, home banking, electronic banking, or Internet banking.
The first ones to test the waters were the large national banks. Soon, regional banks, smaller banks, financial companies, and credit unions joined in and implemented their own electronic banking system based on the Internet. These institutions that have expanded to online have since then referred to as brick-to-click banks as opposed to brick-and-mortar banks. The latter refers to those, which are yet to offer online banking o their customers.
Aside from the brick-to-clicks, there are “virtual” banks that have emerged. These are banks that do not have physical offices or branches, and any tellers or agents. These banks exist only in cyberspace but they still are covered by the same federal regulations that cover the ordinary banks.
Nowadays, the large banks have sites that provide fully secured and fully functioning online banking services that give their customers ultimate convenience. The smaller ones which are a bit more cautious to go full circle offer access to limited banking services like viewing of account balance and history viewing only.
The more banks that go online and succeed in making their services secured, the more that people will have lesser doubts about the advantages and disadvantages for Internet banking.
You shouldn’t worry too much about bad credit finance options, because there are several financing options available regardless of your credit history… some of them charge higher interest rates or require some additional security, but in the end may be just what you’re looking for.
Vehicle financing
If you’re looking for a bad credit finance for a new or used vehicle, your best option is most likely going to be to visit a finance company as opposed to a traditional bank.
Some finance companies are more likely to offer bad credit finance options for vehicles than others, and the financing will usually depend upon the type of vehicle being financed, where the vehicle is being purchased from, and what sort of insurance and driving record you have.
Other factors that will be taken into consideration include your annual and monthly income, any cosigners that you might have for the loan, and any recommendations or referrals that you might have.
Home financing
Finding someone to offer you a bad credit finance for a house or other real estate can sometimes be tricky, but generally real estate shouldn’t be too difficult to finance.
Major factors in getting a mortgage lender to approve you for bad credit finance options include your income, any insurance that you will purchase for the house or real estate, the amount of a down payment that you’re willing to offer, and any references of former landlords that you can offer.
Mortgage lenders for bad credit finance loans can be found online, at finance companies, and at some real estate and property management services.
Other financing
Should you be seeking bad credit finance options for other items (such as collectibles or electronics), you might find your search to be a little more difficult.
Read more on
http://myfreeinfo4u.com/finance/a_guide_to_bad_credit_finance_options.html
DEMOCRACTIC DEFICIT IN AN INDEPENDENT CENTRAL BANK: THE QUEST TO BALANCE THE SCALES
By
Leonard Nkole Kalinde*
- 1.0. INTRODUCTION
Central banking is of cardinal importance in any country because of the legal right normally granted to central banks to create money. This money can serve as a means of payment, a unit of account and a store of value. One of the important issues immediately arising after granting this right to a central bank, is whether this function should fall under the ultimate control of the executive branch of government – the cabinet and its administrative departments – or whether parliament should leave this responsibility to be freely executed by an independent, autonomous powerful institution run by unelected people.
The traditional argument in favour of a strong, independent central bank is that the power to spend money should in some way be separated from the power to create money. Numerous episodes in the world’s economic history testify to a government’s potential abuse of its power to create money. However, one potential objection to a completely independent central bank is lack of democratic accountability and transparency. This paper discusses the challenges of ensuring central bank accountability and transparency in an environment where the central Bank is independent. Part two discusses the concept of central bank independence. Part three examines and analyses the need to have democratic accountability and transparency in the operations of a central bank. Part four concludes that proper democratic accountability and transparency in central operations is not a counterweight to the principle of central bank independence.
- 2.0. THE CONCEPT OF CENTRAL BANK INDEPENDENCE
Nowadays it is widely believed that a high level of central bank independence coupled with some explicit mandate for the bank to restrain inflation are important institutional devices to assure price stability. It is thought that an independent central bank can give full priority to low levels of inflation, whereas in countries with a more dependent central bank other considerations, notably, re-election perspectives of politicians and a low level of unemployment, may interfere with the objective of price stability. Indeed, there is considerable evidence for a negative relationship between central bank independence and inflation. The extent and nature of central bank independence can be assessed on the basis of its legal provisions However, central bank independence also hinges on a broad series of factors and customary practices, which are partly determined by historical developments in the different countries. In particular, the way in which certain conflicts with other bodies of government have been resolved influences the extent to which a central bank is effectively protected against external interferences and marks the boundaries of independence.
Central Bank independence refers to three areas in which the influence of government must be excluded or drastically curtailed, that is to say, independence in personnel matters, financial autonomy and policy independence. These are now discussed hereunder:
2.1. Personnel Independence
The nomination and dismissal of the Governor and members of the central bank’s decision-making bodies pertain to the political authorities. In practice, it is not feasible to exclude government influence completely when appointments are made to such an important public institution as central banks. Personnel independence thus refers to the influence that government has in appointment procedures. Various criteria are relevant here, like governmental representation in the governing body of the central bank, appointment procedures, terms of office and procedures governing dismissal of the board of the bank.
The legal framework for central banking in Zambia, which is the Bank of Zambia Act No. 43 of 1996, in Section 10, vests the power of appointing the Governor in the President of the Republic of Zambia. However, this is subject to ratification by the National Assembly. Furthermore, Section 13(1)(b) vests the power of appointing Members of the Bank of Zambia Board of Directors in the Minister of Finance and National Planning. Finally, Sections 10(7) and (14(2) gives the power to disappoint the appointment of the Governor and Members of the Board of Directors to their respective appointing authorities. Their tenure of office is specified in sections 10(1) and 14(1), which gives the Governor five years and Directors three years, respectively.
Financial Independence
A central bank cannot operate credibly in an independent way without proper financial means. It is clear that politicians can influence central bank policy if the government is able to finance its expenditure either directly and or indirectly via central bank credits. In that case there is no financial independence. The concept of financial independence should, thus, be assessed from the perspective of whether any third party is able to exercise either direct or indirect influence not only over the central bank tasks but also its ability to fulfil its mandate. In this regard, four aspects of financial independence – the right to determine its own budget; the application of central bank-specific accounting rules; clear provisions on the distribution of profits; and clearly defined financial liability for supervisory authorities – are particularly relevant in this respect.
The Bank of Zambia Act has several provisions that regulate how the Bank is to conduct its financial affairs and what the government responsibility is towards its financial well-being. In the first instance, Section 6(3) makes it clear that the Government is the sole subscriber to the paid-up capital of the Bank and its holdings of the paid-up capital is not transferrable in whole or in part nor can it be subject to any encumbrance whatsoever. According to Section 6(5), whenever the Bank of Zambia Board certifies that the assets of the Bank are less than the sum of its capital and other liabilities, the Minister is required to cause to be transferred to the ownership of the Bank negotiable and interest bearing securities issued by the Government for such amount as is necessary for the purposes of preserving the capital of the Bank from any impairment. In addition, Section 7 has elaborate provisions on how the net profits of the Bank are to be determined for each financial year, and where the Bank makes a loss on its profit and loss statement, as certified by the auditors, the Minister is again required to cause to be transferred to the ownership of the Bank, cash or negotiable instruments bearing market interest rates and such securities shall be delivered to the Bank within sixty (60) days from the date of certification of the accounts by the auditors.
2.3. Policy Independence
Policy independence is related to the room for manoeuvre given to the central bank in the formulation and execution of monetary policy. It may be useful to distinguish between goal independence and instrument independence. A central bank has goal independence if it can decide on the formulation of its ultimate objective(s). In practice, most central bank laws formulate one or more objectives. For instance, Section 4 of the Bank of Zambia Act provide that the functions of the Bank shall be to formulate and implement monetary and supervisory policies that will ensure the maintenance of price and financial system stability so as to promote balanced macroeconomic development. However, if the central bank has been trusted with various (possibly conflicting) goals – such as achieving low inflation and low unemployment – it has considerable scope in deciding on its priorities. In that case, the central bank has considerable goal independence since it is relatively free to set the final goals of monetary policy. It could, for instance, decide that price stability is less important than output stability, and act accordingly. Finally a central bank must wield effective instruments in order to defend its objective(s). A bank that has instrument independence is free to choose the means by which it seeks to achieve its goals. Clearly, if government approval is required for the central bank’s use of policy instruments, no instrument independence exits. Perhaps, the most disconcerting provision of the Bank of Zambia Act is Section 5, which provides that the Minister may convey to the Governor such general or particular Government policies as may affect the conduct of the affairs of the Bank and the Bank shall implement or give effect to such policies. This provision could lead to serious interference with the operations of the Bank.
- 3.0. DEMOCRATIC DEFICIT IN CENTRAL BANK INDEPENDENCE
At a glance, the concept of central bank independence seems to be in conflict with the democratic principle that government policies should be controlled by elected officials rather than by an elite group that is insulated from the political process. Although there are plenty of other areas of national life where decision-making is delegated to independent unelected officials, the judiciary being a prime example, there is a fundamental confusion here between being independent and lacking accountability and transparency. It is often argued that central bank independence and democratic accountability are contradictory. This is, however, only correct as far as decisions about the ultimate goal of and final responsibility for monetary policy are concerned. In other words, a central bank should not be goal independent but must be granted instrument independence.
The corollary of this view is that the institutional commitment to macroeconomic stability should come from the government in the form of an explicit, legislated mandate for the central bank to pursue, for instance, price stability as its overriding long-run goal. Indeed, as Issing argues, the more clearly and precisely this mandate is defined, the easier it will also be in a democracy to monitor the performance of the central bank. Moreover, in order to maintain credibility, an independent central bank must not only be open and clear about the reasons for its actions but it must also be accountable to democratic institutions.
3.1. Central Bank Accountability
In any evaluation of the democratic accountability of the central bank, the relationship between the central bank itself and the legislature has to play a major role. No central bank can be totally independent, in the sense that it is not answerable to anyone. Even the most independent central bank has to report in some form or another to the legislature, which in any case also has the ultimate power to change the laws governing the central bank. In this regard, it has been argued that the legislature holds the ultimate responsibility for monetary policy since it can change the legal basis of the central bank. The mere threat of a change of the law may induce even independent central banks to ensure that monetary policy will in general be in accordance with the wishes of elected politicians. However, there is a difference between a situation where policy decisions are under continuous scrutiny and an arrangement where the central bank reports to the legislature periodically.
In the Zambian context, Section 9 (1) of the Bank of Zambia Act requires the Bank, in consultation with the Minister, to publish in the Government Gazette, every six (6) months interval, a policy statement that shall contain: (a) a description and an explanation of the reasons for the monetary policies to be followed by the Bank during the following six (6) months; (b) a description of the principles that the Bank proposes to follow in the formulation and implementation of monetary policy during the next two years or such other period of time as the Minister may decide; and (c) a review and assessment of implementation, by the Bank, of monetary policy during the period to which the last proceeding six months policy statement relates. The Minister is required, within the first sitting of the National Assembly next after the receipt of the monetary policy report, to lay it before the House.
In addition, Section 27 requires the Board of the Bank of Zambia to, as soon as is practicable but not later than six months after the expiry of each financial year, submit to the Minister a report concerning its activities during such financial year. The Minister may also request the Board to submit to him such other reports, returns or statements, duly certified by an auditor, as he may consider necessary. Furthermore, the Bank of Zambia is also required, under Section 28(1), to cause to be published in the Government Gazette a return of its assets and liabilities, and to deliver to the Minister a return of its monthly assets and liabilities whenever he so requires.
It is important to note that the issue of independence and accountability also turns on the nature of the relationship between the government and the legislature as the political authorities on the one hand and the central bank on the other. Without encroaching on the independence of the central bank, there should be a legal requirement for the central bank to report to the legislature and/or explain policy actions in the legislature. The legislature should have the opportunity to review the performance of the central bank with regard to monetary policy on a regular basis, while the central bank at the same time can explain and justify its conduct. In the European case, the Treaty establishing the European Community imposes precise reporting obligations on the European Central Bank. The European Central Bank must deliver an annual report on the activities of the European System of Central Banks to the European Parliament, the European Council and the European Commission. The European Parliament can also summon the President of the European Central Bank and the other members of the Executive Board to appear before it and make the necessary presentations.
Furthermore, a central bank may not only be directly accountable to the legislature but also to the government, which is, in turn, accountable to the legislature. In that case, it is important that the government is able to influence the central bank’s behaviour. Without such influence, accountability would not go beyond mere reporting by government to parliament of central bank policies, for which government cannot be held responsible. Finally, the dismissal procedure for a central banker can amount to a mechanism of ex post accountability if a central banker official can be dismissed on the grounds of bad performance, that is to say, not realising stated objectives. Dismissal may function as a sanction for poor performance by linking the tenure of central bank officials to policy results, that is to say, meeting the predetermined monetary policy target. This is the case for the Reserve Bank of New Zealand where the policy target agreement between the Governor of the Bank and the Minister of Finance lays down the policy targets, which the former has to achieve. Inadequate performance can result in the dismissal of the Governor.
3.2. Central Bank Transparency
Another very important element of central bank accountability is central bank transparency. In this regard, central bank transparency cannot be logically separated from accountability. This is because whatever other arrangements concerning democratic accountability may exist, their scope is limited without transparency because information concerning the behaviour of the central bank is crucial for the evaluation its performance. Where the reasoning behind, and strength of opinion supporting, certain monetary policy decisions are transparent, it is easier to make a judgement and to hold central bank officials accountable for their behaviour. Indeed, as Buiter argues, the entire monetary policy process must be transparent for democratic accountability. Therefore, a central bank should be required to report at regular intervals on its current and future plans for monetary policy in accordance with the monetary objective. This is even more important where a clear monetary objective is missing because in such cases the central bank can only be judged on the basis of its own statements.
As transparency should not be left to the discretion of the central bank, the law should prescribe certain procedures for explaining monetary policy. There are various possibilities, ranging from reports, minutes and other communication devices. Transparency will certainly be improved if the monetary authorities have to explain the extent to which they were able to reach the final objectives of monetary policy. In the European case, Article 15.1 of the Statute of the European System of Central Banks and European Central Bank requires the European Central Bank to publish reports on the activities of the European System of Central Banks at least once every quarter. However, in its attempts to enhance transparency, the European Central Bank has committed itself to go beyond the reporting requirements specified in the Treaty. The President explains the reasons behind the Governing Council’s decisions in a press conference and details of the Governing Council’s views are published in the ECB Monthly Bulletin.
4.0. CONCLUSION
This paper has argued that at a glance, the concept of central bank independence seems to be in conflict with the democratic principle that government policies should be controlled by elected officials rather than by an elite group that is insulated from the political process. The basic principle of democracy, which expects the public to be able to exercise control over government actions, strongly suggests that elected politicians should decide on the explicit definition and ranking of the objectives of monetary policy. Central bankers should never forget that they are ultimately accountable for their policies to the elected politicians and to the public at large (including future generations). In this respect, it is misleading to think of proper accountability and transparency as a ‘counter-weight’ to central bank independence. On the contrary, accountability is the ‘other side of the coin’ of independence and the two concepts are mutually reinforcing rather than antagonists, as is sometimes suggested. Any weakening of the democratic control over an independent institution may lead to excessive discretion and unclear objectives, which risks creating political backlashes against independence and may overtime undermine independence itself. Therefore, independence is sustainable in the long term only if accompanied by strong accountability and transparency in the operations of the independent institution. The legal provisions can more easily be circumvented if there are no provisions ensuring central bank transparency and accountability.
THE CHALLENGES AHEAD OF BANKS
*G.JAYALAKSHMI., Ph.D Research Scholar
INTRODUCTION
India’s banking industry is at a watershed. Evidence from across the world suggests that a sound and evolved banking system is required for sustained economic development. India has a better banking system in place Vis a Vis other developing countries, but there are several issues that need to be ironed out.
A strong performance in the current year, strengthening the positive trends of the past, will certainly improve the short-term risk perception but focus must rest on key structural changes that have to occur if Indian banking is to be a positive force and not a drag on the rest of the economy.
It has met and successfully overcome several challenges over the last decade. But bigger challenges lie ahead. In this paper, we try and look into the challenges that the banking sector in India faces.
Interest rate risk
The first and most obvious challenge will come from rising interest rates. The current perception is that interest rates have stopped falling and are likely to remain steady, but if demand for resources picks up as firms start to invest in new capacity and boom conditions fuel consumption demand, then there may be a tightening of liquidity and upward pressure on interest rates.
Interest rate risk can be defined as exposure of bank’s net interest income to adverse movements in interest rates. A bank’s balance sheet consists mainly of rupee assets and liabilities. Any movement in domestic interest rate is the main source of interest rate risk.
Over the last few years the treasury departments of banks have been responsible for a substantial part of profits made by banks.
Now as yields go up (with the rise in inflation, bond yields go up and bond prices fall as the debt market starts factoring a possible interest rate hike), the banks will have to set aside funds to mark to market their investment. This will make it difficult to show huge profits from treasury operations. This concern becomes much stronger because a substantial percentage of bank deposits remain invested in government bonds.
Banking in the recent years had been reduced to a trading operation in government securities. Recent months have shown a rise in the bond yields has led to the profit from treasury operations falling. The latest quarterly reports of banks clearly show several banks making losses on their treasury operations. If the rise in yields continues the banks might end up posting huge losses on their trading books. Given these facts, banks will have to look at alternative sources of investment.
Non-performing assets
The best indicator of the health of the banking industry in a country is its level of NPAs. Given this fact, Indian banks seem to be better placed than they were in the past. A few banks have even managed to reduce their net NPAs to less than one percent (before the merger of Global Trust Bank into Oriental Bank of Commerce, OBC was a zero NPA bank). But as the bond yields start to rise the chances are the net NPAs will also start to go up.
This will happen because the banks have been making huge provisions against the money they made on their bond portfolios in a scenario where bond yields were falling.
Reduced NPAs generally gives the impression that banks have strengthened their credit appraisal processes over the years. This does not seem to be the case. With increasing bond yields, treasury income will come down and if the banks wish to make large provisions, the money will have to come from their interest income, and this in turn, shall bring down the profitability of banks.
Capital adequacy norms
A third and a key challenge will be the introduction of Basle II capital adequacy norms. These will make two demands on banks.
They will have to measure the risks they bear much better. For this they will need to overhaul their management information systems so that they have a clear and quantifiable idea of their risks.
Then they will have to look for capital to back that risk and ultimately earn enough to be able to service that capital. R Ravimohan, managing director of Crisil, feels that the future is all about technology and risks.
There is a huge potential for undertaking risk assessment by using technology. It is imperative for banks to grow but the key issue is deciding where and how.
New ways or managing risk and asset-liability mismatches, like asset securitization, which unlocks resources and spreads risk, are likely to be increasingly used.
Competition in retail banking
The entry of new generation private sector banks has changed the entire scenario. Earlier the household savings went into banks and the banks then lent out money to corporate. Now they need to sell banking. The retail segment, which was earlier ignored, is now the most important of the lot, with the banks jumping over one another to give out loans.
The consumer has never been so lucky with so many banks offering so many products to choose from. With supply far exceeding demand it has been a race to the bottom, with the banks undercutting one another. A lot of foreign banks have already burnt their fingers in the retail game and have now decided to get out of a few retail segments completely.
The nimble footed new generation private sector banks have taken a lead on this front and the public sector banks are trying to play catch up. The PSBs have been losing business to the private sector banks in this segment. PSBs need to figure out the means to generate profitable business from this segment in the days to come.
Conclusion
Over the last few years, the falling interest rates, gave banks very little incentive to lend to projects, as the return did not compensate them for the risk involved. This led to the banks getting into the retail segment big time. It also led to a lot of banks playing it safe and putting in most of the deposits they collected into government bonds.
Now with the bond party over and the bond yields starting to go up, the banks will have to concentrate on their core function of lending.
The banking sector in India needs to tackle these challenges successfully to keep growing and strengthen the Indian financial system.
Furthermore, the interference of the central government with the functioning of PSBs should stop. A fresh autonomy package for public sector banks is in offing. The package seeks to provide a high degree of freedom to PSBs on operational matters. This seems to be the right way to go for PSBs.
The growth of the banking sector will be one of the most important inputs that shall go into making sure that India progresses and becomes a global economic super power.